Case studiesAs mentioned in the introduction, the "SWIFT Affair" and the EU's Third AML/CFT Directive have been selected as case studies in this thesis. The use of case studies is very suitable for the type of research carried out in this thesis for three reasons. First, case studies are a preferred method when the research focuses on a contemporary topic with a real-life context (Yin, 2009, p. 2). This is exactly the case when exploring practices created in the name of Europe's fight against terrorist financing. When the Data Wars project, carried out by Durham University and the University of Amsterdam and of which this thesis is part, began in 2008, there was little academic information available on this struggle and even less on the daily practices implemented. Focusing on these two specific case studies helped gather and disseminate a lot of detailed information. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original Essay Second, case studies are useful for investigating social processes (Swanborn, 1994, p. 316). By focusing on a specific case it becomes possible to analyze the interaction at the micro level. This may include, for example, the creation and reproduction of meaning, the emergence of disagreements, the different stages of the decision-making process, or the mapping of participants' various perspectives and motivations. The analysis of the social processes taking place in these two case studies was crucial for studying the exercise of power in the name of the European fight against terrorism. Third, a case study allows for an in-depth investigation of a complex issue (Swanborn, 1996, p. 38). In contrast to a causal model that measures specific predefined variables among a significant set of respondents at the time of the investigation, a case study considers a set of significant characteristics or causes of a specific case over a certain period of time. In other words, case studies can offer a holistic approach (Swanborn, 1996, p. 26, Yin, 2009, p. 4). This holistic aspect of the case study also explains why case studies have been used very frequently in governmentality studies. The selection of case studies must respond to the central concepts of the research question (Klotz, 2009). The SWIFT case and the Third Directive were selected as case studies because these are the main ways in which the war on terrorist financing has taken shape in Europe. They are both examples of the use of personal financial data for security and, more specifically, counter-terrorism purposes in Europe. Both are also part of a broader shift towards commercial databases for security purposes and fall within a spectrum of examples such as the PNR and e-border cases examined by the UK research team of the Data Wars project, and the use of telecommunications and the Internet and even purchasing information. However, the two case studies also have important differences. First, the Third Directive is a legal framework related to reporting suspicious transactions that has never raised much controversy on a social or political level. This is a rather specific and detailed tool that requires specific entities, mainly in the banking and financial sector, to comply with certain anti-terrorism requirements. Due to its seemingly undisputed character and the fact that the Directive primarily concerns the internal organization of a specific group of companies, it has remained largely invisible. On the other hand, the SWIFT case was highly visible and controversial as it involved the transfer and surveillance of international wire transfers, initiallyillegal under European law. In this case, the US and European political scene plays an important role. The difference between the two cases is important to provide a more complete understanding of the practices taking place throughout the European fight against terrorist financing. The next section discusses the qualitative research tools adopted to investigate the two cases. Documentary research and textual analysis In addition to the study of academic literature, this thesis is based on extensive documentary research. This includes the analysis of: official reports from public and private authorities, press releases, political statements, laws, policy documents, (transcripts of) parliamentary hearings and debates, international press articles, Internet blogs and journalistic books. These are very valuable sources for examining the way in which the European fight against terrorist financing has been defined and represented. Desk research helps to reconstruct events, trace decision-making procedures and examine the range of arguments and opinions of participants governing the European fight against terrorist financing. Furthermore, documentary research helps shed light on governance techniques. For example, legislative texts prescribe the actions required of banks and financial service providers, and banks' annual reports often mention the measures taken by the bank to comply with the law. Journalistic works, on the other hand, were crucial in reconstructing the practices developed in the Terrorism Finance Tracking Program (TFTP). In Chapter 4 the documents were used more systematically for textual analysis to investigate how participants in the field regulating terrorist financing supported or contested the TFTP. This section discusses the potential pitfalls of documentary research and the methodology adopted for textual analysis. Although (official) documents appear to constitute stable and objective evidence, in reality they are socially produced for a certain purpose on the basis of certain ideas, theories or ideas. principles (Atkinson & Coffey, 2004, Bryman, 2008, Gilbert 2008). This is why it is important to reflect on the interpretation and meaning of documents. Scott (1990) distinguishes four criteria for evaluating the quality of documents. First of all, the authenticity of the documents must be verified. Given that most of the documents used in this thesis are of very recent date and available in libraries or on the official websites of the public and private authorities investigated or in the media, it is unlikely that these are falsified or copied incorrectly. In this sense authenticity was not a cause for concern. Authenticity may also be a concern when the authorship of articles is unclear (Bryman, 2008, p. 525). However, in the context of this thesis, this was not problematic. Second, the credibility of the texts deserves consideration. One may ask, for example, whether quotes from anonymous sources contained in books or journalistic articles are reliable. But even official statements by politicians and government officials can be distorted and in strong conflict, for example, with current legal provisions. The credibility of the text can be assessed by reflecting on the following questions: Who produced the document? Does the author have an interest in distorting the truth? And why, when and in what context was the text written? (Gilbert, 2008, p. 294). Although it is unquestionably important to know whether statements or documents can be attributed with certainty to a person or organization, it must nevertheless be emphasized that the purpose of this thesis is not to establish the credibility of the texts in the sense of being representative of the truth. In fact, it is through comparing the differences in presentation andin the interpretation of the arguments and facts that the rationalities on which the European fight against terrorism is based become visible and can be understood. A third criterion is the representativeness of the document or set of documents. . This issue was particularly important regarding the textual analysis discussed below. In general it can be said that with the help of Internet search engines and public databases a wide range of documents published by public and private actors on each of the case studies was consulted. However, it should be noted that only official and publicly accessible documents were consulted. Internal or confidential correspondence, minutes and memos are beyond the scope of this research. Last but not least, Scott (1990) states that the meaning of the document must be established. In this regard, a distinction can be made between literal meaning and interpretative understanding. According to him, “in its simplest form, interpretation requires understanding the particular definitions and recording practices adopted, as well as the genre and stylization employed in the text” (p. 30). The hermeneutic process of interpretation goes a step further as it also involves interpretive understanding of individual concepts, appreciation of the social and cultural context through which various concepts are linked in a particular discourse, and a judgment about the meaning and significance of the text as a whole' (Scott, 1990, p. 31). Therefore, to interpret the meaning of the text it is important to investigate the author's situation and intentions as well as the social context in which the text was written. This type of interpretive research can be conducted through textual analysis. Chapter 4 offers a textual analysis of the debates surrounding the SWIFT issue in the US and the EU respectively. There are various approaches to textual analysis ranging from semiotics to more quantitative forms of contextual analysis. In chapter 4 the approach followed by Huysmans and Buonfino (2008) was adopted. In their article they investigated how and in which cases British politicians represent or contest the links between terrorism and immigration. For their analysis, they selected all parliamentary debates on terrorism that took place in the House of Commons and the House of Lords in a given period. The dates chosen include the debates following 9/11 and the Madrid attacks. Some key debates held in 2005 are also included, particularly those that took place after the London bombings, to ascertain any important changes that have occurred. In a first phase, Huysmans and Buonfino searched for written transcripts of parliamentary debates through Hansard, the verbatim reports of the proceedings of the British parliament, using the keyword 'terrorism'. Next, they refined their search through immigration-related words. Subsequently, debates containing both themes were read for meaning, structure, and connection to other themes. As such they analyzed how some dangers have been politicized and how insecurity has been framed around the migration/terrorism nexus (2008, p. 768). Chapter 4 investigates how and at what moments the SWIFT issue was (de)politicized in the United States and America. EUROPEAN UNION. The main sources for this analysis are newspaper articles. Two different considerations explain this choice. Apart from the fact that journalists initially revealed the SWIFT case, so far most of the information has been published in the press. Furthermore, newspaper articles are also a place where the multiple actors involved in the field (political leaders, privacy groups, law enforcement and SWIFT spokespersons).