Socially, those immigrants, especially Asian immigrants, were often the target of raids, boycotts, and scapegoating by the white mainstream. Legally, through the formal denial of citizenship to Asians through the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the Japanese internment camp during World War II, Ozawa v. United States (1922) and United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), Asian communities -Americans were stripped of their possessions and properties. The message from the government and the Supreme Court was clear: membership in the United States was available to those who are “white” both scientifically and in common sense (What is an American?). One-dimensionally, the decisions impacted the definition of whiteness and fixed the United States' racial relationship between whites and African Americans; furthermore, the decision racializes Asians as unauthorized, unassimilable, and